SherbyNet - /page/wikibook/entry.mu

Micron Document

<!DOCTYPE html>

<title>Lieber Code</title>

</head>

<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Lieber Code</span></span>

</h1>

</header>

<p>The <b>Lieber Code</b> (<b>General Orders No. 100</b>, April 24, 1863) was the <a href="Military_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Military law">military law</a> that governed the wartime conduct of the <a href="Union_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Union Army">Union Army</a> by defining and describing <a href="Command_responsibility" title="Command responsibility">command responsibility</a> for war crimes and crimes against humanity; and the military responsibilities of the Union soldier fighting in the <a href="American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a> (April 12, 1861 – May 26, 1865) against the <a href="Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederate States of America</a> (February 8, 1861 – May 9, 1865).<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The General Orders No. 100: <i>Instructions for the Government of the Armies of the United States in the Field</i> (Lieber Code) were written by <a href="Francis_Lieber" title="Francis Lieber">Franz Lieber</a>, a German lawyer, political philosopher, and combat veteran of the Napoleonic Wars.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Background">Background</h3></div>

<p>At military age, the <a href="Jurist" title="Jurist">jurist</a> <a href="Francis_Lieber" title="Francis Lieber">Francis Lieber</a> soldiered and fought in two wars, first for <a href="Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussia</a> in the <a href="Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a> (18 May 1803 – 20 November 1815) and then in the <a href="Greek_War_of_Independence" title="Greek War of Independence">Greek War of Independence</a> (21 February 1821 – 12 September 1829) from the <a href="Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> (1299–1922). In his later career, Lieber was an academic at the <a href="College_of_South_Carolina" class="mw-redirect" title="College of South Carolina">College of South Carolina</a>, in the southern region of United States of America. Although not personally an <a href="Abolitionist" class="mw-redirect" title="Abolitionist">abolitionist</a>, Lieber opposed slavery in principle and in practice because he had witnessed the brutalities of black <a href="Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">chattel slavery</a> in the South, from which he departed for New York City in 1857.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1860, Professor Lieber taught history and political science at the Columbia Law School, and publicly lectured about the "Laws and Usages of War" proposing that the laws of war correspond to a legitimate purpose for the war.<sup id="cite_ref-NY_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NY-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>During that time, Lieber had three sons who fought in the American Civil War (April 12, 1861 – May 26, 1865): one in the <a href="Confederate_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Confederate Army">Confederate Army</a>, who was killed at the <a href="Battle_of_Eltham's_Landing" title="Battle of Eltham's Landing">Battle of Eltham's Landing</a> (May 7, 1862), and two in the <a href="Union_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Union Army">Union Army</a>. Later in 1862, in St. Louis, Missouri, while searching for the Union-soldier son wounded at the <a href="Battle_of_Fort_Donelson" title="Battle of Fort Donelson">Battle of Fort Donelson</a> (February 11–16, 1862), Lieber asked the help of his professional acquaintance Major General <a href="Henry_Halleck" title="Henry Halleck">Henry W. Halleck</a>, who had been a lawyer before the Civil War and was the author of <i>International Law, or, Rules Regulating the Intercourse of States in Peace and War</i> (1861), a book of political philosophy that emphasized legal correspondence between the <i><a href="Casus_belli" title="Casus belli">casus belli</a></i> and the purpose of the war.<sup id="cite_ref-NY_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NY-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legal_dilemma">Legal dilemma</h3></div>

<p>In fighting the Confederate Army, guerrillas, and civilian collaborators of the Confederacy, Union Army soldiers and officers faced ethical dilemmas of <a href="Command_responsibility" title="Command responsibility">command responsibility</a> concerning their <a href="Summary_execution" title="Summary execution">summary execution</a> <i>in situ</i>, per military custom, because the <a href="Articles_of_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Articles of war">1806 Articles of War</a> did not address the management and disposition of prisoners of war and irregular fighters; nor the management and safe disposition of escaped black slaves – who were not to be repatriated to the Confederacy, per the <a href="Act_Prohibiting_the_Return_of_Slaves" title="Act Prohibiting the Return of Slaves">Act Prohibiting the Return of Slaves</a> (1862).<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>To resolve the lack of military authority in the 1806 Articles of War, <a href="Commanding_General_of_the_United_States_Army" title="Commanding General of the United States Army">Commanding General of the Union Army</a> Halleck commissioned Professor Lieber to write military laws specific to the modern warfare of the American Civil War. For the Union Army's management and disposal of irregular fighters (guerrillas, spies, saboteurs, <i>et al.</i>), Lieber wrote the tract of military law <i>Guerilla Parties Considered with Reference to the Laws and Usages of War</i> (1862), which disallowed a soldier's POW-status to Confederate guerrillas and irregular fighters with three functional disqualifications: (i) guerrillas do not wear the army uniform of a belligerent party to the war; (ii) guerrillas have no formal chain of command, like a regular army unit; and (iii) guerrillas cannot take prisoners, as could an army unit.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>At the end of 1862, General Halleck and War Secretary Stanton commissioned Lieber to revise the military law of the 1806 Articles of War to include the practical considerations of military necessity and the humanitarian needs of civilian populations under military occupation. The editorial-revision committee, Major General <a href="Ethan_A._Hitchcock_(general)" title="Ethan A. Hitchcock (general)">Ethan A. Hitchcock</a> and Major General <a href="George_Cadwalader" title="George Cadwalader">George Cadwalader</a>, Major General <a href="George_L._Hartsuff" class="mw-redirect" title="George L. Hartsuff">George L. Hartsuff</a> and Brigadier General <a href="John_Henry_Martindale" class="mw-redirect" title="John Henry Martindale">John Henry Martindale</a>, requested from Lieber comprehensive military laws to govern the Union Army's prosecution of the Civil War. Gen. Halleck edited Lieber's military law to concur with the <a href="Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a> (1 January 1863), and, on April 24, 1863, President Lincoln promulgated General Orders No. 100, <i>Instructions for the Government of the Armies of the United States in the Field</i>, the Lieber Code.<sup id="cite_ref-NY_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NY-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legal_provisions">Legal provisions</h2></div>

<p>For the Union Army's prosecution of the American Civil War, General Order No. 100 (April 24, 1863) concerns the practical particulars of <a href="Martial_law" title="Martial law">martial law</a>, military <a href="Jurisdiction" title="Jurisdiction">jurisdiction</a>, and the treatment of Confederate <a href="Irregular_military" title="Irregular military">irregular fighters</a>, such as spies, <a href="Deserter" class="mw-redirect" title="Deserter">deserters</a>, and prisoners of war. In the field practice of military justice, the unit commander held authority for any prosecution under the Lieber Code, which command authority included the <a href="Summary_execution" title="Summary execution">summary execution</a> of Confederate prisoners of war and war-criminal soldiers of the Union Army.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the context of the American Civil War, the Lieber Code explains the concepts of <i>military necessity</i> and <i>humanitarian needs</i> in articles 14, 15, and 16 of Section I:

</p>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><blockquote class="templatequote">

<ol><li value="14"> Military necessity, as understood by modern civilized nations, consists in the necessity of those measures which are indispensable for securing the ends of the war, and which are lawful according to the modern law and usages of war.</li>

<li>Military necessity admits of all direct destruction of life or limb of armed enemies, and of other persons whose destruction is incidentally unavoidable in the armed contests of the war; it allows of the capturing of every armed enemy, and every enemy of importance to the hostile government, or of peculiar danger to the captor; it allows of all destruction of property, and obstruction of the ways and channels of traffic, travel, or communication, and of all withholding of sustenance or means of life from the enemy; of the appropriation of whatever an enemy's country affords necessary for the subsistence and safety of the Army, and of such deception as does not involve the breaking of good faith either positively pledged, regarding agreements entered into during the war, or supposed by the modern law of war to exist. Men who take up arms against one another in public war do not cease on this account to be moral beings, responsible to one another and to God.</li>

<li>Military necessity does not admit of cruelty – that is, the infliction of suffering for the sake of suffering or for revenge, nor of maiming or wounding except in fight, nor of torture to extort confessions. It does not admit of the use of poison in any way, nor of the wanton devastation of a district. It admits of deception, but disclaims acts of perfidy; and, in general, military necessity does not include any act of hostility which makes the return to peace unnecessarily difficult.</li></ol></blockquote>

<p>In the late 19th century, the Lieber Code was the first modern codification of both <a href="Customary_international_law" title="Customary international law">customary international law</a> and the <a href="Law_of_war" title="Law of war">law of war</a> of Europe, and later was a basis for the <a href="Hague_Convention_of_1907" class="mw-redirect" title="Hague Convention of 1907">Hague Convention of 1907</a>, which restated and codified the practical particulars of that U.S. military law for application to international war among the signatory countries.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethical_warfare">Ethical warfare</h3></div>

<p>As the <a href="Modernity" title="Modernity">modernization</a> of the 1806 Articles of War (An Act for Establishing Rules and Articles for the Government of the Armies of the United States), the Lieber Code defines and describes what is a state of <a href="Civil_war" title="Civil war">civil war</a>, what is <a href="Military_occupation" title="Military occupation">military occupation</a>, and explains the politico-military purposes of war; explains what are the permissible and the impermissible military means an army can employ to fight and win a war; and defines and describes the nature of the <a href="Nation-state" class="mw-redirect" title="Nation-state">nation-state</a>, the nature of national <a href="Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">sovereignty</a>, and what is <a href="Rebellion" title="Rebellion">rebellion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="International_humanitarian_law" title="International humanitarian law">International humanitarian law</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading">

Courts and Tribunals</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<ul><li><a href="Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">Nuremberg trials</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">International Military Tribunal for the Far East</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_the_former_Yugoslavia" title="International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia">International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_Rwanda" title="International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda">International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Court_of_Justice" title="International Court of Justice">International Court of Justice</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Criminal_Court" title="International Criminal Court">International Criminal Court</a></li></ul>

</div></td>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading">

Violations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<ul><li><a href="War_crime" title="War crime">War crimes</a></li></ul>

</div></td>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading">

Treaties</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="Hague_Conventions_of_1899_and_1907" title="Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907">Hague Conventions</a></li><li><a href="Geneva_Conventions" title="Geneva Conventions">Geneva Conventions</a></li><li><a href="Third_Geneva_Convention" title="Third Geneva Convention">Third Geneva Convention</a></li><li><a href="Fourth_Geneva_Convention" title="Fourth Geneva Convention">Fourth Geneva Convention</a></li><li><a href="Protocol_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Protocol I">Protocol I</a></li><li><a href="Protocol_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Protocol II">Protocol II</a></li><li><a href="Protocol_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Protocol III">Protocol III</a></li><li><a href="Rome_Statute" title="Rome Statute">Rome Statute</a></li></ul></div></td>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading">

Related areas of law</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="Law_of_war" title="Law of war">Law of war</a> (<i><a href="Jus_ad_bellum" title="Jus ad bellum">jus ad bellum</a></i>)</li><li><a href="International_human_rights_law" title="International human rights law">International human rights law</a></li><li><a href="International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">International criminal law</a></li></ul></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style></td></tr></tbody></table>

<p>The Code requires the humane, ethical treatment of civil populations under the military occupation of the Union Army, and forbids the <a href="No_quarter" title="No quarter">policy of killing prisoners of war</a> – except when taking prisoners endangers the capturing unit.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, concerning the ethics of fighting a <a href="Civil_war" title="Civil war">civil war</a>, Article 70, Section III stipulates that "the use of poison in any manner, be it to poison wells, or food, or arms, is wholly excluded from modern warfare. He that uses it puts himself out of the pale of the law and usages of war."<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The Code forbids <a href="Torture" title="Torture">torture</a> as warfare; thus Article 44, Section II prohibits "all wanton violence committed against persons in the invaded country, all destruction of property not commanded by the authorized officer, all robbery, all pillage or sacking, even after taking a place by main force, all rape, wounding, maiming, or killing of such inhabitants, are prohibited under the penalty of death, or such other severe punishment as may seem adequate for the gravity of the offense. A soldier, officer, or private, in the act of committing such violence, and disobeying a superior ordering him to abstain from it, may be lawfully killed on the spot by such superior."<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kuo_2002_306_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kuo_2002_306-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Black_prisoners_of_war">Black prisoners of war</h3></div>

<p>The Lieber Code military law concorded with the <a href="Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a> (1 January 1863) and prohibited racial discrimination against <a href="United_States_Colored_Troops" title="United States Colored Troops">black soldiers of the Union Army</a>, specifically the Confederate Army denying them the rights and privileges of prisoners of war.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Those stipulations of U.S. military law specifically addressed the Confederate government's proclamation that the <a href="Confederate_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Confederate Army">Confederate Army</a> would treat captured black soldiers of the Union Army as escaped slaves, and not as prisoners of war, subject either to summary execution or to re-enslavement in the Confederacy; likewise, the white officers commanding the captured black soldiers would be denied prisoner-of-war status and would be arrested, tried, and condemned as common criminals for helping slaves escape human bondage.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hard_measures">Hard measures</h3></div>

<p>Regarding a successful military occupation, the Lieber Code proposed a reciprocal relationship between the U.S. military authority and the Confederate civilian population, whose co-operation with the military authority would ensure considerations and good treatment for the civilian populace; that against guerrilla warfare and armed resistance to <a href="Martial_law" title="Martial law">martial law</a> the Union Army would subject the insubordinate enemy civilians to imprisonment and death.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Moreover, to defend against the Confederate Army's violations of the laws of war by way of irregular fighters, the Lieber Code allowed <a href="Reprisal" title="Reprisal">retaliation</a> by musketry against Confederate POWs, and allowed the summary execution of captured enemy civilians (spies, saboteurs, <i><a href="Francs-tireurs" title="Francs-tireurs">francs-tireurs</a></i>, guerrillas) caught attacking the Union Army and the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In the 19th century, the Lieber Code legalized limited circumstances for retaliation against enemies for acts such as giving no quarter, reasoning "a reckless enemy ... leaves to his opponent no other means of securing himself against the repetition of barbarous outrage." (article 27) "Retaliation shall only be resorted to after careful inquiry into the real occurrence, and the character of the misdeeds that may demand retribution."(article 28)

</p><p>However, retribution is limited: "Unjust or inconsiderate retaliation removes the belligerents farther and farther from the mitigating rules of regular war, and by rapid steps leads them nearer to the internecine wars of savages."(article 28)

</p><p>As he believed war's ultimate goal is to bring peace, Lieber preferred for short wars fought and won with decisive warfare, as proposed in the strategy and tactics of the Prussian military science of <a href="Carl_von_Clausewitz" title="Carl von Clausewitz">Carl von Clausewitz</a>. To that end, the Lieber Code legitimized and justified aggressive war to expand the operational range of the Union Army’s prosecution of the civil war to conquer the Confederacy and free the slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Occupation_of_the_Confederacy">Occupation of the Confederacy</h3></div>

<p>For the conquest and military occupation of the <a href="Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederate States of America</a> (February 8, 1861 – May 9, 1865), General <a href="William_Tecumseh_Sherman" title="William Tecumseh Sherman">William Tecumseh Sherman</a> based his Special Field Orders No. 120 (November 9, 1864) upon General Orders No. 100 (April 24, 1863) for the Union Army. To realize a peaceful <a href="Military_occupation" title="Military occupation">military occupation</a> of the state of Georgia, Special Field Order No. 120 stipulated that "in districts and neighborhoods where the army is unmolested no destruction of such property should be permitted; but, should <a href="Guerrilla" class="mw-redirect" title="Guerrilla">guerrillas</a> or <a href="Bushwhacker" title="Bushwhacker">bushwhackers</a> molest our march, or should the inhabitants burn bridges, obstruct roads, or otherwise manifest local hostility, then army commanders should order and enforce a devastation more or less relentless according to the measure of such hostility."<sup id="cite_ref-https://cwnc.omeka.chass.ncsu.edu/items/show/145_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-https://cwnc.omeka.chass.ncsu.edu/items/show/145-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Moreover, the Lieber Code (General Orders No. 100, April 24, 1863) was the military law applied to the prosecution of <a href="War_crime" title="War crime">war crimes</a> and for equal prisoner-of-war exchanges between the Union Army and the Confederate Army, regardless of the skin color of the soldier.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International_law">International law</h3></div>

<p>In the late 19th century and in the early 20th century, the parties to the <a href="Hague_Conventions_of_1899_and_1907" title="Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907">Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907</a> used the Lieber Code (General Orders No. 100, April 24, 1863) as a basis for their legislation of the international law of war and the codification (definition and description) of what is a <a href="War_crime" title="War crime">war crime</a> and of what is a <a href="Crime_against_humanity" class="mw-redirect" title="Crime against humanity">crime against humanity</a>. In the mid 20th century, in the aftermath of the <a href="Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a> (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945), at the war-crime <a href="Nuremberg_Trials" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuremberg Trials">Nuremberg Trials</a> (20 November 1945 – 1 October 1946) and at the <a href="Tokyo_Trials" class="mw-redirect" title="Tokyo Trials">Tokyo Trials</a> (29 April 1946 – 12 November 1948) the jurists determined that, by the year 1939, most governments in the world knew of the existence the <a href="Law_of_war" title="Law of war">law of war</a>, agreed in Switzerland, and thus most governments knew the legal responsibilities of the <a href="Belligerent" title="Belligerent">belligerent</a> parties, of <a href="Neutral_country" title="Neutral country">neutral countries</a>, and of the <a href="Refugees" class="mw-redirect" title="Refugees">refugees</a> from the war.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philippine–American_War">Philippine–American War</h3></div>

<p>An abridged version of the Lieber Code was published in <i>The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies</i> (1899).<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lieber's son, <a href="Guido_Norman_Lieber" title="Guido Norman Lieber">Guido Norman Lieber</a>, was the <a href="Judge_Advocate_General's_Corps%2C_U.S._Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Judge Advocate General's Corps, U.S. Army">Judge Advocate General</a> of the Army (1895–1901), during the <a href="Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a> (April 21 – August 13, 1898) and <a href="Philippine%E2%80%93American_War" title="Philippine–American War">Philippine–American War</a> (February 4, 1899 – July 2, 1902). The Lieber Code was the military law then applied for courts martial of American military personnel, and for litigation against the Filipino natives and against the Filipino revolutionaries fighting the U.S. occupation of the Philippine Islands; e.g. the unlawful concentration camps of General <a href="James_Franklin_Bell" class="mw-redirect" title="James Franklin Bell">J. Franklin Bell</a> and war-crime trial of <a href="Littleton_Waller#Philippine–American_War_and_war_crimes_acquittal" title="Littleton Waller">Littleton Waller</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="U.S._Law_of_War_Manual">U.S. <i>Law of War Manual</i></h3></div>

<p>In 2015, the <a href="United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">United States Department of Defense</a> published its <i>Law of War Manual</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was updated and revised in July 2023.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>Manual</i> explicitly refers to the Lieber Code, and the Lieber Code's influence on the <i>Law of War Manual</i> is apparent throughout.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Command_responsibility" title="Command responsibility">Command responsibility</a></li>

<li><a href="International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">International criminal law</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div class="reflist">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("./mw/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("./mw/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("./mw/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("./mw/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><cite id="CITEREFFrancis_Lieber1863" class="citation book cs1">Francis Lieber (1863). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/governarmies00unitrich"><i>Instructions for the Government of the Armies of the United States in the Field</i></a> (1st ed.). New York: D.Van Nostrand<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 August</span> 2015</span> – via Internet Archive.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFCarnahan2010" class="citation book cs1">Carnahan, Burrus M. (2010). <i>Lincoln on Trial: Southern Civilians and the Law of War</i>. United States: The University Press of Kentucky. p. 30.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-NY-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NY_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NY_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NY_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Beard, Rick. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/04/24/the-lieber-codes/">"The Lieber Codes"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>, April 24, 2013.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Article 43, Section II, General Orders No. 100, <i>Instructions for the Government of Armies of the United States in the Field</i> (24 IV 1863)</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/guerrillaparties00lieb#page/n5/mode/2up">"Guerrilla Parties: Considered with Reference to the Laws and Usages of War"</a>. <i>archive.org</i>. 1862.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Article 77, Section III: Deserters—Prisoners of war—Hostages—Booty on the Battle-field, <i>Instructions for the Government of Armies of the United States in the Field</i> (1863) </span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFVergerio2022" class="citation book cs1">Vergerio, Claire (2022). "The Berlin and Hague Conferences". In Bukovanski, Mlada; Keene, Edward; Reus-Smit, Christian; Spanu, Maja (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/345939338"><i>The Oxford Handbook of History and International Relations</i></a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">articles 149, 150, and 151, Section X: Insurrection—Civil War—Rebellion, <i>Instructions for the Government of Armies of the United States in the Field</i> (1863) </span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Article 60, Section III, <i>Instructions for the Government of the Armies of the United States in the Field</i> (1863).</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Article 70, Section III, <i>Instructions for the Government of the Armies of the United States in the Field</i> (1863).</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFLieber1863" class="citation web cs1">Lieber, Francis (April 24, 1863). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20010407120840/http://www.civilwarhome.com/liebercode.htm">"The Lieber Code of 1863"</a>. United States War Department. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.civilwarhome.com/liebercode.htm">the original</a> on 2001-04-07<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 March</span> 2020</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Kuo_2002_306-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kuo_2002_306_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKuo2002" class="citation journal cs1">Kuo, Peggy (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarlycommons.law.case.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1467&context=jil">"Prosecuting Crimes of Sexual Violence in an International Tribunal"</a>. <i>Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law</i>. <b>34</b>: <span class="nowrap">306–</span>307. <q>[military commanders were] given the power to execute a soldier immediately if that person committed one of the prohibited acts.</q></cite></span>

</li>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/04/24/the-lieber-codes/">"The Lieber Codes"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. April 24, 2013.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://opil.ouplaw.com/view/10.1093/law:epil/9780199231690/law-9780199231690-e2126">"Lieber Code"</a>. Oxford Public International Law<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 9,</span> 2017</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBirtle1997" class="citation journal cs1">Birtle, Andrew J. (April 1997). "The U.S. Army's Pacification of Marinduque, Philippine Islands, April 1900 – April 1901". <i>The Journal of Military History</i>. <b>61</b> (2). Society for Military History: <span class="nowrap">255–</span>282. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2953967">10.2307/2953967</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2953967">2953967</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">articles 27, 28, and 29, Section I: "Martial Law—Military Jurisdiction—Military Necessity—Retaliation", <i>Instructions for the Government of Armies of the United States in the Field</i> (1863)</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Lieber Codes (April 24, 2013), <i>The New York Times</i>, p. 2.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://opil.ouplaw.com/view/10.1093/law:epil/9780199231690/law-9780199231690-e2126">"Lieber Code"</a>. Oxford Public International Law<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 9,</span> 2017</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-https://cwnc.omeka.chass.ncsu.edu/items/show/145-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-https://cwnc.omeka.chass.ncsu.edu/items/show/145_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSherman1864" class="citation web cs1">Sherman, William T. (9 November 1864). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cwnc.omeka.chass.ncsu.edu/items/show/145">"Special Field Orders No. 120"</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

</li>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">United States. War Department. <i>The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies</i>. Series 2. <b>5</b>. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1899, pp. 671–682.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dod.mil/dodgc/images/law_war_manual15.pdf"><i>Department of Defense Law War Manual</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Washington, DC: Office of General Counsel, Department of Defense. 2015. p. iii<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 April</span> 2016</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSavage2016" class="citation web cs1">Savage, Charlie (July 22, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/23/us/politics/pentagon-revamps-law-of-war-manual-to-protect-journalists.html?hpw&rref=politics&action=click&pgtype=Homepage&module=well-region&region=bottom-well&WT.nav=bottom-well&_r=0">"Pentagon Revamps Law of War Manual to Protect Journalists"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 23,</span> 2016</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/2997317-DoD-Law-of-War-Manual-June-2015-Updated-May-2016.html#document/p1/a309613"><i>Department of Defense Law of War Manual</i></a>. Washington, DC: Office of General Counsel, Department of Defense. May 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 July</span> 2016</span> – via DocumentCloud.</cite> or via <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160726182707/http://www.defense.gov/Portals/1/Documents/DoD_Law_of_War_Manual-June_2015_Updated_May_2016.pdf">U.S. Department of Defense</a></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lawfaremedia.org/article/throwback-thursday-lieber-code">"Throwback Thursday: The Lieber Code"</a>. 23 July 2015.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li>Bellinger, Vanya Eftimova (March 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/12/article/847275/pdf">"Lieber and Clausewitz: The Understanding of Modern War and the Theoretical Origin of General Orders No. 100"</a>. <i>The Journal of the Civil War Era</i>, Vol. 12, No. 1.</li>

<li>Carnahan, Burrus M. (2007). <i>Act of Justice: Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation and the Law of War</i>. Lexington, KY: The University Press of Kentucky. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-8131-2463-6</bdi>.</li>

<li>Carnahan, Burrus M. (2010). <i>Lincoln on Trial: Southern Civilians and the Law of War</i>. Lexington, KY: The University Press of Kentucky. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-8131-2569-5</bdi>.</li>

<li>Carnahan, Burrus M. (2012). "The Civil War Origins of the Modern Rules of War: Francis Lieber and Lincoln's General Order No. 100". <i>Northern Kentucky Law Review</i>, vol. 39, no. 4, pp. 661-697.</li>

<li><a href="James_Childress" title="James Childress">Childress, James F.</a> (1976) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarship.law.nd.edu/ajj/vol21/iss1/3/">"Francis Lieber's Interpretation of the Laws of War: General Orders No. 100 in the Context of His Life and Thought"</a> <i>American Journal of Jurisprudence</i>, Vol. 21: Issue 1, Article 3.</li>

<li>Mack, Charles R. and Lesesne, Henry H., eds. (2005). <i>Francis Lieber and the Culture of the Mind</i>. Columbia, South Carolina: University of South Carolina Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>1-57003-535-0</bdi>.</li>

<li>Mancini, Matthew J. (May 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41306198">"Francis Lieber, Slavery, and the 'Genesis' of the Laws of War"</a>, <i>The Journal of Southern History</i>, vol. 77, no. 2, pp. 325-348.</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWitt2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="John_Fabian_Witt" title="John Fabian Witt">Witt, John Fabian</a> (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fmuhs67Aba4C"><i>Lincoln's Code: The Laws of War in American History</i></a>. New York: Free Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4165-7617-4</bdi>.</cite><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fedbar.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/bookrev-mar13-pdf-1.pdf">Review</a> by Burrus M. Carnahan; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lawreview.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/12_Finkelman_.pdf">Review</a> by <a href="Paul_Finkelman" title="Paul Finkelman">Paul Finkelman</a>.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .infobox .side-box{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div class="side-box side-box-right sistersitebox">

<div class="side-box-text plainlist">English <a href="Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article:

<div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/en:Instructions_for_the_Government_of_Armies_of_the_United_States_in_the_Field" class="extiw external" title="s:en:Instructions for the Government of Armies of the United States in the Field"><i>Instructions for the Government of Armies of the United States in the Field</i></a></b></div></div></div>

</div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20010407120840/http://www.civilwarhome.com/liebercode.htm">The full text of the Lieber Code</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/lieber.asp">The full text of the Lieber Code</a> at the Yale <a href="Avalon_Project" title="Avalon Project">Avalon Project</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/2997317-DoD-Law-of-War-Manual-June-2015-Updated-May-2016.html">Text of the 2015 US DoD Law of War Manual</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blogs.loc.gov/law/2018/04/the-lieber-code-the-first-modern-codification-of-the-laws-of-war/">Gesley, Jenny, "The 'Lieber Code' – the First Modern Codification of the Laws of War"</a>, <a href="Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a> Blogs, April 24, 2018.</li></ul></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-05-29" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Lieber_Code&oldid=1292906865">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

</div>

</div></div>

</div>

</main>

</div>

</body></html>